Tips on Reading Exams
Before you start taking an examination, read it through. Sometimes the first time that you read a question, you will be extremely overwhelmed by it. However, reading the test thoroughly will give you more time to let the question sink in.
•Read it through more than once if need be. However, do not waste an obscene amount of time reading the exam. You do need to take it too! If you have a learning disability or other need which prevents you from taking the test in the required amount of time, speak privately to a teacher or guidance counselor before the exam is administered.
•Read the directions carefully. One test that teachers like to give is a "pop quiz." However, on the top of the pop quiz, the directions say "Read these directions and put your pen down. Do not answer any questions." Most students will go right to the questions without reading the directions at all. A few of their peers will realize the directions, and soon those who did not read will notice that some are not taking the test.
•Go through the questions slowly. Do not skip words, and do not assume that you know that the question is asking. Make sure that you always read the questions thoroughly. If you provide a wonderful answer, but it is an answer to the wrong question, you are not going to get any points.
•Watch out for key words. If the question says "all" or "never," and is a true or false question, the answer is most likely false. That being said, there are exceptions to every rule.
•Look for the most basic meaning. The reason why so many extremely intelligent people do not test well is because they look for deep and hidden meanings of questions.
Tips on Writing Exams
For Students
•As with reading, make sure that you are answering the question. If you write a wonderful answer but it does not answer the question, that does not solve anything.
•Watch for grammar and spelling mistakes. Some teachers will not deduct points for minor errors, and some will. If you have lots of gross errors, especially on a language examination or for an English class, chances are you are going to lose points.
•Use professional language. Do not write in slang, Internet talk, or shorthand.
•Try and keep your handwriting neat. Remember, your teacher has to be able to read it. If he or she does not know what a certain word says, the entire meaning of your answer could be altered.
http://www.yourdictionary.com/reference/resources/tips-on-reading-and-writing-exams.html
2011年5月1日 星期日
Recommended children's books
http://www.teachersfirst.com/100books.cfm
Here you'll find some books for kids of different ages
Here you'll find some books for kids of different ages
Tips on Reading and Writing
HELPFUL TIPS:
1. Begin at the beginning:
All the texts assigned for class have succinct Introductions (and in some cases, notes and critical appendices as well). These particular translations were chosen based on the usefulness (and sometimes controversial nature) of this specific material. So, you should start at the beginning and go over what the translator highlights for you in those introductions. Make a note of what is said about important themes and characters (those reading journals come in handy for this!). The introductions will give you an idea of what to look for and to pay attention to as you begin your reading.
2. Choose a key episode:
In many of the chronicles and romances, you'll se that there are many, often seemingly unrelated, episodes strung together. Don't get bogged down in the details of all of them. Choose one or two for yourself that carry out the theme of the story. In The Knight of the Cart, for instance, how does Lancelot's choice to cross the Sword Bridge define his nature as a perfect courtly knight? his total devotion to love? How does this episode tie in with how other characters (Gawain and Meleagant, for example) act when faced with such choices? What kind of language and narrative techniques are used to recount your particular episode? What is the nature of the characters in your episode? and how can you compare them to other characters and episodes in the text?
3. Choose spot quotations to focus your reading and understanding:
What line or passage has special meaning for you? As you read, what really sticks in your mind that is memorable? How does the line or passage illustrate the whole of the story? You will be posting some of your memorable passages to the discussion board and getting reactions from others in the class. It will be interesting to see some of the similarities and differences, or to see that people pick the same passage, but for different reasons!
4. Read the text before coming to class and Read ahead:
As I've mentioned elsewhere, you will have a very hard time folowing discussions and participating in class if you haven't read the material beforehand. Go over the introduction carefully and then do a quick read first--to get the gist and a general sense of what the story is about. Then focus more closely on a few key episodes to illustrate the text's meaning and that can form a basis for your understanding of the whole.
Reading Ahead: All our readings are not the same length--the texts in the second half of the semester are the longest. Use the first half of the semester to read ahead of what's being discussed in class. Look back to the earlier texts and compare them to what you're reading. You'd be surprised at how many comparisons you can make and how things begin to look a lot clearer. For example, how does the character of Kay, or Merlin, or Gawain differ from text to text? Lancelot? Guenevere? Arthur?
Jot down special difficulties and Increase your reading speed:
What's the hardest part of the book for you to manage? Where do you feel "bogged down?" We will discuss some of these problems in class, but post some questions to the discussion board and see what others have to say. For most students (and for me, too) the long lists of names, numbers, and battles can be very confusing. They seem to clutter the narrative. Instead of trying to remember all the details about people, battles, numbers fighting, etc., ask yourself why these details are given. What would the interest be for a medieval audience? You'll see how Geoffrey of Monmouth and Wace alter some of the details of certain episodes based on their audiences and for a certain effect.
Another point on names: There are many different spellings for the same name (e.g. Gawain and Guenevere). We will adopt the most common forms and use them consistently.
If you don't get bogged down in certain details by paging through those passages, you will increase your reading speed. Make a note of such passages and try to understand their purpose and effect: Why are they included? No one (and that includes me!) is going to ask you how many soldiers showed up at the battle between Arthur and Hengist! Likewise, you'll never be asked to recount Merlin's prophecies from Geoffrey of Monmouth. Even Wace steered clear of that one!
6. Writing assignments:
Writing is improved by writing, and there is no getting away from that fact. You should therefore use every opportunity you have to improve your writing. All of your writing should be done carefully--whether it's your journal entries, postings to the discussion board, e-mails to me or others in the class, essays, or research papers. Each assignment should be well-organized--with a topic sentence and definition of your central idea(s). Your writing should be neatly presented--with grammar and spelling checked and critical sources (be they print or electronic) presented accurately (use Hacker's Pocket Style Manual or the MLA Style Sheet for the details of the presentation of research and tips on the mechanics of spelling, punctuation, etc.). Correct your assignments when you get them back and come in to see me with any questions.
Source:http://www.library.csi.cuny.edu/dept/modlang/talarico/tips.htm
1. Begin at the beginning:
All the texts assigned for class have succinct Introductions (and in some cases, notes and critical appendices as well). These particular translations were chosen based on the usefulness (and sometimes controversial nature) of this specific material. So, you should start at the beginning and go over what the translator highlights for you in those introductions. Make a note of what is said about important themes and characters (those reading journals come in handy for this!). The introductions will give you an idea of what to look for and to pay attention to as you begin your reading.
2. Choose a key episode:
In many of the chronicles and romances, you'll se that there are many, often seemingly unrelated, episodes strung together. Don't get bogged down in the details of all of them. Choose one or two for yourself that carry out the theme of the story. In The Knight of the Cart, for instance, how does Lancelot's choice to cross the Sword Bridge define his nature as a perfect courtly knight? his total devotion to love? How does this episode tie in with how other characters (Gawain and Meleagant, for example) act when faced with such choices? What kind of language and narrative techniques are used to recount your particular episode? What is the nature of the characters in your episode? and how can you compare them to other characters and episodes in the text?
3. Choose spot quotations to focus your reading and understanding:
What line or passage has special meaning for you? As you read, what really sticks in your mind that is memorable? How does the line or passage illustrate the whole of the story? You will be posting some of your memorable passages to the discussion board and getting reactions from others in the class. It will be interesting to see some of the similarities and differences, or to see that people pick the same passage, but for different reasons!
4. Read the text before coming to class and Read ahead:
As I've mentioned elsewhere, you will have a very hard time folowing discussions and participating in class if you haven't read the material beforehand. Go over the introduction carefully and then do a quick read first--to get the gist and a general sense of what the story is about. Then focus more closely on a few key episodes to illustrate the text's meaning and that can form a basis for your understanding of the whole.
Reading Ahead: All our readings are not the same length--the texts in the second half of the semester are the longest. Use the first half of the semester to read ahead of what's being discussed in class. Look back to the earlier texts and compare them to what you're reading. You'd be surprised at how many comparisons you can make and how things begin to look a lot clearer. For example, how does the character of Kay, or Merlin, or Gawain differ from text to text? Lancelot? Guenevere? Arthur?
Jot down special difficulties and Increase your reading speed:
What's the hardest part of the book for you to manage? Where do you feel "bogged down?" We will discuss some of these problems in class, but post some questions to the discussion board and see what others have to say. For most students (and for me, too) the long lists of names, numbers, and battles can be very confusing. They seem to clutter the narrative. Instead of trying to remember all the details about people, battles, numbers fighting, etc., ask yourself why these details are given. What would the interest be for a medieval audience? You'll see how Geoffrey of Monmouth and Wace alter some of the details of certain episodes based on their audiences and for a certain effect.
Another point on names: There are many different spellings for the same name (e.g. Gawain and Guenevere). We will adopt the most common forms and use them consistently.
If you don't get bogged down in certain details by paging through those passages, you will increase your reading speed. Make a note of such passages and try to understand their purpose and effect: Why are they included? No one (and that includes me!) is going to ask you how many soldiers showed up at the battle between Arthur and Hengist! Likewise, you'll never be asked to recount Merlin's prophecies from Geoffrey of Monmouth. Even Wace steered clear of that one!
6. Writing assignments:
Writing is improved by writing, and there is no getting away from that fact. You should therefore use every opportunity you have to improve your writing. All of your writing should be done carefully--whether it's your journal entries, postings to the discussion board, e-mails to me or others in the class, essays, or research papers. Each assignment should be well-organized--with a topic sentence and definition of your central idea(s). Your writing should be neatly presented--with grammar and spelling checked and critical sources (be they print or electronic) presented accurately (use Hacker's Pocket Style Manual or the MLA Style Sheet for the details of the presentation of research and tips on the mechanics of spelling, punctuation, etc.). Correct your assignments when you get them back and come in to see me with any questions.
Source:http://www.library.csi.cuny.edu/dept/modlang/talarico/tips.htm
2011年4月30日 星期六
Writer's Guidelines: The Research Paper
1. The research paper is a long documented essay based on a thorough examination of a topic and supported by explanations and by both references to and quotations from sources.
2. The research paper is no more difficult than other writing assignments if you select a good topic, use a systematic approach, and do not get behind with your work.
3. Asystematic approach involves these then steps:
•Select a topic
•Find sources
•List sources.
•Take notes.
•Refine your thesis and outline
•Write your first draft
•Revise your first draft
•Prepare your Works Cited section
•Write your final draft.
•Submit required materials.
4. Your library almost certainly mixes traditional and electronic indexes and sources; you should become familiar with them.
5. MLA styple for works cited differs from that used in traditional and electronic indexes.
6. You can avoid plagiarism by giving credit when you borrow someone else's words or ideas.
Source: Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays
2. The research paper is no more difficult than other writing assignments if you select a good topic, use a systematic approach, and do not get behind with your work.
3. Asystematic approach involves these then steps:
•Select a topic
•Find sources
•List sources.
•Take notes.
•Refine your thesis and outline
•Write your first draft
•Revise your first draft
•Prepare your Works Cited section
•Write your final draft.
•Submit required materials.
4. Your library almost certainly mixes traditional and electronic indexes and sources; you should become familiar with them.
5. MLA styple for works cited differs from that used in traditional and electronic indexes.
6. You can avoid plagiarism by giving credit when you borrow someone else's words or ideas.
Source: Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays
Chapter 16 Writing the Research Paper
The Research Paper Defined
The research paper is a long documented essay based on a thorough examination of your topic and supported by your explanations and by both references to and quotations from your sources. The traditional research paper in the style of the Modern Language Association, typically called MLA style, includes a title page (sometimes omitted), a thesis and an outline, a documented essay (text), and a list of sources (called "Works Cited," referring to the works used specifically in the essay).
Ten Steps to Writing a Research Paper
Step 1 Select a Topic
Select a topic and make a scratch outline. Then construct a thesis as you did for writing an essay by choosing what you intend to write about (subject) and by deciding how you will limit or focus your subject (treatment). Your purpose will be wither to inform (explain) or to persuade (argue).
1. Your topic should interest you and be appropriate in subject and scope for your assignment.
2. Your topic should be researchable through library and other relevant sources, such as the Internet. Avoid topics that are too subjective or are so new that good source material is not available.
Step 2 find Sources
Find sources for your investigation. With your topic and its divisions in mind, use the resources and the electronic databases available in your college library and on the Internet to identify books, articles, and other materials pertaining to your topic. The list of these items, called bibliography, should be prepared on cards in the form appropriate for your assignment.
Books
Today most academic and municipal libraries provide information about books on online computer terminals, with databases accessible by author, title, subject, or other key words.
Printed Material Other Than Books
For the typical college research paper, the main printed nonbook sources are periodicals, such as newspapers, magazines, and journals.
Computerized Indexes and Other Online Services
Computerized indexes, such as Infor Trac, Periodical Abstracts, and Newspaper Abstracts Ondisc, can be accessed in basically the same way as the online book catalogs, using key words and word combinations.
Step 3 List Sources
List tentative sources in a preliminary bibliography
Bibliography and Works Cited, MLA Style
You will list source material in two phase of your research paper project: the preliminary bibliography and the Works Cited list. The MLA research paper form is commonly used for both the preliminary bibliography and the list of works cited. This format is unlike the format used in catalogs and indexes.
Step 4 Take Notes
Take notes in an organized fashion. Resist the temptation to write down everything that interests you. Instead, take notes that pertain to divisions of your topic as stated in your thesis or scratch outline. Locate, read, and take notes on the sources listed in your preliminary bibliography. Some of these sources need to be printed out from electronic databases or from the Internet, some photocopied, and some checked out. Your notes will usually be on cards, with each card indicating key pieces of the information:
A. Division of topic (usually Roman-numeral part of your scratch outline or the divisions of your thesis)
B. Identification of topic (by author's last name or title of piece)
C. Location of material (usually by page number)
D. Text of statement as originally worded (with quotation marks; editorial comments in brackets), summarized or paragraph (in student's own words, without quotation marks), and statement of relevance of material, if possible.
Step 5 Reine Your Thesis and Outline
Refine your thesis statement and outline to reflect more precisely what you intend to write.
Step 6 Write Your First Draft
Referring to your thesis, outline, and note cards keyed to your outline, write the first draft of your research paper.
Plagiarism: Careful attention to the rules of documentation will help you avoid plagiarism, the unacknowledged use of someone else's words or idea. You can avoid plagiarism by giving credit when you borrow someone else;s words or ideas.
Step 7 Revise Your First Draft
Evaluate your first draft and amend it as needed (perhaps researching an area not well covered for additional support material and adding or deleting sections of your outline to reflect the way your paper has grown).
Use the writing process guidelines as you would in writing any other essay.
Write and then revise your paper as many times as necessary for coherence, language (usage, tone, and diction), unity, emphasis, support, and sentences (CLUESS).
Correct problems in fundamentals such as capitalization, omissions, punctuation, and spelling (COPS). Before writing the final draft, read your paper aloud to discover any errors or awkward-sounding sentence structure.
Step 8 Prepare Your Works Cited Section
Using the same form as in the preliminary bibliography, prepare a Works Cited section (a list of works you have referred to or quoted and identified parenthetically in the text).
Step 9 Write your final Draft
Write the final version of your research paper with care for effective writing and accurate documentation. The final draft will probably include the following parts:
1. Title pager (sometimes omitted)
2. Thesis and outline (topical or sentence, as directed)
3. Documented essay (text)
4. List of sources used (Work Cited)
Step 10 Submit Required Materials
Submit your research paper with any preliminary material required by your instructor. Consider using a checklist to make sure you have fulfilled all requirements.
Source: Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays
The research paper is a long documented essay based on a thorough examination of your topic and supported by your explanations and by both references to and quotations from your sources. The traditional research paper in the style of the Modern Language Association, typically called MLA style, includes a title page (sometimes omitted), a thesis and an outline, a documented essay (text), and a list of sources (called "Works Cited," referring to the works used specifically in the essay).
Ten Steps to Writing a Research Paper
Step 1 Select a Topic
Select a topic and make a scratch outline. Then construct a thesis as you did for writing an essay by choosing what you intend to write about (subject) and by deciding how you will limit or focus your subject (treatment). Your purpose will be wither to inform (explain) or to persuade (argue).
1. Your topic should interest you and be appropriate in subject and scope for your assignment.
2. Your topic should be researchable through library and other relevant sources, such as the Internet. Avoid topics that are too subjective or are so new that good source material is not available.
Step 2 find Sources
Find sources for your investigation. With your topic and its divisions in mind, use the resources and the electronic databases available in your college library and on the Internet to identify books, articles, and other materials pertaining to your topic. The list of these items, called bibliography, should be prepared on cards in the form appropriate for your assignment.
Books
Today most academic and municipal libraries provide information about books on online computer terminals, with databases accessible by author, title, subject, or other key words.
Printed Material Other Than Books
For the typical college research paper, the main printed nonbook sources are periodicals, such as newspapers, magazines, and journals.
Computerized Indexes and Other Online Services
Computerized indexes, such as Infor Trac, Periodical Abstracts, and Newspaper Abstracts Ondisc, can be accessed in basically the same way as the online book catalogs, using key words and word combinations.
Step 3 List Sources
List tentative sources in a preliminary bibliography
Bibliography and Works Cited, MLA Style
You will list source material in two phase of your research paper project: the preliminary bibliography and the Works Cited list. The MLA research paper form is commonly used for both the preliminary bibliography and the list of works cited. This format is unlike the format used in catalogs and indexes.
Step 4 Take Notes
Take notes in an organized fashion. Resist the temptation to write down everything that interests you. Instead, take notes that pertain to divisions of your topic as stated in your thesis or scratch outline. Locate, read, and take notes on the sources listed in your preliminary bibliography. Some of these sources need to be printed out from electronic databases or from the Internet, some photocopied, and some checked out. Your notes will usually be on cards, with each card indicating key pieces of the information:
A. Division of topic (usually Roman-numeral part of your scratch outline or the divisions of your thesis)
B. Identification of topic (by author's last name or title of piece)
C. Location of material (usually by page number)
D. Text of statement as originally worded (with quotation marks; editorial comments in brackets), summarized or paragraph (in student's own words, without quotation marks), and statement of relevance of material, if possible.
Step 5 Reine Your Thesis and Outline
Refine your thesis statement and outline to reflect more precisely what you intend to write.
Step 6 Write Your First Draft
Referring to your thesis, outline, and note cards keyed to your outline, write the first draft of your research paper.
Plagiarism: Careful attention to the rules of documentation will help you avoid plagiarism, the unacknowledged use of someone else's words or idea. You can avoid plagiarism by giving credit when you borrow someone else;s words or ideas.
Step 7 Revise Your First Draft
Evaluate your first draft and amend it as needed (perhaps researching an area not well covered for additional support material and adding or deleting sections of your outline to reflect the way your paper has grown).
Use the writing process guidelines as you would in writing any other essay.
Write and then revise your paper as many times as necessary for coherence, language (usage, tone, and diction), unity, emphasis, support, and sentences (CLUESS).
Correct problems in fundamentals such as capitalization, omissions, punctuation, and spelling (COPS). Before writing the final draft, read your paper aloud to discover any errors or awkward-sounding sentence structure.
Step 8 Prepare Your Works Cited Section
Using the same form as in the preliminary bibliography, prepare a Works Cited section (a list of works you have referred to or quoted and identified parenthetically in the text).
Step 9 Write your final Draft
Write the final version of your research paper with care for effective writing and accurate documentation. The final draft will probably include the following parts:
1. Title pager (sometimes omitted)
2. Thesis and outline (topical or sentence, as directed)
3. Documented essay (text)
4. List of sources used (Work Cited)
Step 10 Submit Required Materials
Submit your research paper with any preliminary material required by your instructor. Consider using a checklist to make sure you have fulfilled all requirements.
Source: Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays
Writer's Guidelines: Argument
1. Ask yourself the following question; then consider which parts of th persuasive statement or argument you should include in your essay.
Background: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?
Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?
Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with exceptions?
Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?
Support: In addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?
2.The basic pattern of a paragraph or an essay of persuaion or argument is likely to be in this form:
Proposition (the topic sentence of the paragraph or the thesis of the essay)
I. Support 1
II. Support 2
III. Support 3
Background: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?
Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?
Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with exceptions?
Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?
Support: In addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?
2.The basic pattern of a paragraph or an essay of persuaion or argument is likely to be in this form:
Proposition (the topic sentence of the paragraph or the thesis of the essay)
I. Support 1
II. Support 2
III. Support 3
Chapter 15 Argument: Writing to Persuade
Writing Argument
Persuasion is a broad term. When we persuade, we try to influence people to think in a certain way or to do something.
Argument is persuasion on a topic about which reasonable people disagree. Argument involves controversy. Whereas exercising appropriately is probably not controversial because reasonable people do not dispute the idea, an issue such as gun control is. In this chapter, we will be concerned mainly with the kind of persuasion that involves argument.
Techniques for Developing Argument
Statements of argument are informal or formal. An opinion column in a newspaper is likely to have little set structure, whereas an argument in college writing is likely to be tightly organized. Nervertheless, the opinion column and the college paper have much in common. Both provide a proposition, which is the main point of the argument, and both provide pupport, which is the evidence of the reasons that back up the proposition.
For a well – structured college paragraph or essay, an organizing plan is desirable. Consider these elements when you write an argument, and ask yourself the following question as you develop your ideas:
Background: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?
Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?
Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with exceptions? If, for example, I am in favor of using animals for scientific experimentation, am I concerned only with medical experiments or with any use, including experiments for the cosmetic industry?
Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?
Support: In addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?
Your Audience
Your audience may be uninformed, informed, biased, hostile, receptive, apathetic, sympathetic, and empathetic – any one, several, or something else. The point is that you should be acutely concerned about who will read your composition. If your readers are likely to be uninformed about the social and historical background of the issue, then you need to set the issue in context. The discussion of the background should lead to the problem for which you have a proposition or solution. If your readers are likely to be biased or even hostile to your view, take special care to refute the opposing side in a thoughtful, incisive way that does not further antagonize them. If your readers are already receptive and perhaps even sympathetic, and you wish to move them to action, then you might appeal to their conscience and the need for their commitment.
Kinds of Evidence
In addition to sound reasoning generally, you can use these kinds of evidence: facts, examples, statistics, and authorities.
First, you can offer facts. Some facts are readily accepted because they are general knowledge – you and your reader know them to be true, because they can be or have been verified. Other “facts” are based on personal observation and are reported in various publications but may be false or questionable.
Second, you can cite examples. Keep in mind that you must present a sufficient number of examples and that the examples must be relevant.
Avoid presenting a long list of figures; select statistics carefully and relate them to things familiar to your reader.
Third, you can present statistics. Statistics are numerical facts and data that are classified and tabulated to present significant information about a given subject.
Fourth, you can cite evidence from, and opinions of, authorities. Most readers accept facts from recognized, reliable source – governmental publication, standard reference works, and books and periodicals published by established firms. In addition, they will accept evidence and opinions from individuals who, because of their knowledge and experience, are recognized as experts.
In using authoritative source as proof, keep these points in mind:
1.Select authorities who are generally recognized as experts in their field.
2.Use authorities who qualify in the field pertinent to your argument.
3.Select authorities whose views are not biased.
4.Try to use several authorities.
5.Identify the authority's credentials clearly in your essay.
Logical Fallacies
Certain thought patterns are inherently flawed. Commonly called logical fallacies, these thought patterns are of primary concern in argument. You should be able to identify them in the arguments of those on the other side of an issue, and you should be sure to avoid them in your own writing.
Eight kinds of logical fallacies are very common.
1. Post hoc,ergo proter hoc (“after this, therefore because of this”): When one event precedes another in time, the first is assumed to cause the other. “If A comes before B, then A must be causing B.”
2. False analogy: False analogies ignore differences and stress similarities, often in an attempt to prove something.
3. Hasty generalization: This is a conclusion based on two few reliable instances.
4. False dilemma: This fallacy presents the readers with only two alternatives from which to choose. The solution may lie elsewhere.
5. Argumentum ad hominem: (argument against the person): This is the practice of abusing and discrediting your opponent rather than keeping to the main issues of that argument.
6. Begging the question: The fallacy assumes something is true without proof. It occurs when a thinker assumes a position is right before offering proof.
7. Circular reasoning: This thought pattern asserts proof that is no more than a repetition of the initial assertion.
8. Non sequitur: This fallacy draws a conclusion that does not follow.
Persuasion is a broad term. When we persuade, we try to influence people to think in a certain way or to do something.
Argument is persuasion on a topic about which reasonable people disagree. Argument involves controversy. Whereas exercising appropriately is probably not controversial because reasonable people do not dispute the idea, an issue such as gun control is. In this chapter, we will be concerned mainly with the kind of persuasion that involves argument.
Techniques for Developing Argument
Statements of argument are informal or formal. An opinion column in a newspaper is likely to have little set structure, whereas an argument in college writing is likely to be tightly organized. Nervertheless, the opinion column and the college paper have much in common. Both provide a proposition, which is the main point of the argument, and both provide pupport, which is the evidence of the reasons that back up the proposition.
For a well – structured college paragraph or essay, an organizing plan is desirable. Consider these elements when you write an argument, and ask yourself the following question as you develop your ideas:
Background: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?
Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?
Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with exceptions? If, for example, I am in favor of using animals for scientific experimentation, am I concerned only with medical experiments or with any use, including experiments for the cosmetic industry?
Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?
Support: In addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?
Your Audience
Your audience may be uninformed, informed, biased, hostile, receptive, apathetic, sympathetic, and empathetic – any one, several, or something else. The point is that you should be acutely concerned about who will read your composition. If your readers are likely to be uninformed about the social and historical background of the issue, then you need to set the issue in context. The discussion of the background should lead to the problem for which you have a proposition or solution. If your readers are likely to be biased or even hostile to your view, take special care to refute the opposing side in a thoughtful, incisive way that does not further antagonize them. If your readers are already receptive and perhaps even sympathetic, and you wish to move them to action, then you might appeal to their conscience and the need for their commitment.
Kinds of Evidence
In addition to sound reasoning generally, you can use these kinds of evidence: facts, examples, statistics, and authorities.
First, you can offer facts. Some facts are readily accepted because they are general knowledge – you and your reader know them to be true, because they can be or have been verified. Other “facts” are based on personal observation and are reported in various publications but may be false or questionable.
Second, you can cite examples. Keep in mind that you must present a sufficient number of examples and that the examples must be relevant.
Avoid presenting a long list of figures; select statistics carefully and relate them to things familiar to your reader.
Third, you can present statistics. Statistics are numerical facts and data that are classified and tabulated to present significant information about a given subject.
Fourth, you can cite evidence from, and opinions of, authorities. Most readers accept facts from recognized, reliable source – governmental publication, standard reference works, and books and periodicals published by established firms. In addition, they will accept evidence and opinions from individuals who, because of their knowledge and experience, are recognized as experts.
In using authoritative source as proof, keep these points in mind:
1.Select authorities who are generally recognized as experts in their field.
2.Use authorities who qualify in the field pertinent to your argument.
3.Select authorities whose views are not biased.
4.Try to use several authorities.
5.Identify the authority's credentials clearly in your essay.
Logical Fallacies
Certain thought patterns are inherently flawed. Commonly called logical fallacies, these thought patterns are of primary concern in argument. You should be able to identify them in the arguments of those on the other side of an issue, and you should be sure to avoid them in your own writing.
Eight kinds of logical fallacies are very common.
1. Post hoc,ergo proter hoc (“after this, therefore because of this”): When one event precedes another in time, the first is assumed to cause the other. “If A comes before B, then A must be causing B.”
2. False analogy: False analogies ignore differences and stress similarities, often in an attempt to prove something.
3. Hasty generalization: This is a conclusion based on two few reliable instances.
4. False dilemma: This fallacy presents the readers with only two alternatives from which to choose. The solution may lie elsewhere.
5. Argumentum ad hominem: (argument against the person): This is the practice of abusing and discrediting your opponent rather than keeping to the main issues of that argument.
6. Begging the question: The fallacy assumes something is true without proof. It occurs when a thinker assumes a position is right before offering proof.
7. Circular reasoning: This thought pattern asserts proof that is no more than a repetition of the initial assertion.
8. Non sequitur: This fallacy draws a conclusion that does not follow.
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